The legacy of trauma: A comprehensive framework for the understanding of post-traumatic symptoms.

Post-traumatic symptoms (PTS) have complex origins. On a side, they derive from an external noxious force that damages the biopsychosocial integrity of the individual; on the other, there are many temperamental, developmental, and relational factors that modulate the individual’s response to trauma. In this study, 180 participants (112 females, 62%) ranging in age from 18 to 68 years (M=28.31, SD=8.24) completed an online survey that included questionnaires on trauma symptoms, general psychopathology, parental bonding, affectivity, attachment styles, dissociation, alexithymia, and impulsivity. A cluster analysis on trauma symptom responses showed that participants could be grouped in three clusters (with average silhouette of cohesion and separation being .3), that were consistently named “No PTS” (n=73), “Mild PTS” (n=75), and “Moderate to severe PTS” (n=32), according to the PTS total score. Participants in the “moderate to severe PTS” group were younger than the other participants. They showed significantly higher scores on general psychopathology, preoccupied and fearful attachment, negative affects, dissociation, alexithymia, and impulsivity, and significantly lower scores on parental care, secure attachment, and positive affects. The results of this study support the view that a comprehensive psychopathological framework is needed to better understand, assess, and treat trauma and stressor-related disorders.